Ruthven's "Structuring Features"

Slightly different type of post today; I’ve been reading a bunch for a project and just came across this framework. I wrote a little summary of what I took away from it, and since it might be interesting, decided to share.

Decentralization Reforms in the East Asian context: histories, challenges, and ways forward

Decentralization Reforms in the East Asian context: histories, challenges, and ways forward
 Mark Olofson
 University of Vermont
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Educational reform is a project that is embarked upon by many different nations around the world. Different cultures and systems seek to reform their systems in many different ways. With the growth of globalization, specifically the globalization of educational performance as measured by international assessments, many countries feel it necessary to conduct real reform, and look to the world for models to guide them. It may then seem counterintuitive for nations that rank highly on these measures to be engaging in reform. However, China, Korea, and Japan, nations that consistently score in the top ten on international assessments, have, over the past quarter century, launched programs to bring about reform in their educational systems. Many of these reforms have taken the shape of decentralization of curricular decision-making, shifting some of the power of how and what to teach down to lower hierarchical levels. This paper will consider these reforms in the East Asian context, and how cultural forces interact with them. Special attention must be paid to the long history of high stakes examinations in these countries, as they add an additional layer of confusion to an already difficult path for these types of reforms.

Collaboration for research: a description of models, benefits, and challenges

Collaboration for research: a description of models, benefits, and challenges

Mark Olofson

University of Vermont

Link to pdf

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            As a first year Ph.D. student, I have had the opportunity to be exposed to many different domains of academia. Not only am I taking a number of classes, but I am also working as an educational research assistant. I previously had little formal research experience, outside of that which was in the context of coursework. Along with the new work came numerous existing structures and opportunities for collaboration. Given that this is a new area for me I chose to use this project to investigate the structures, benefits, and challenges of collaboration around conducting academic research at the university level. To proceed, I decided to focus on pieces written by practicing professionals, while also conducting a short interview with an experienced researcher and collaborator. This helped to temper and personalize some of the findings from the literature. The models, benefits, and challenges that I found will help me not only with my further work in this course, but also in my professional practice as I continue to grow as a researcher and collaborator.

From Jesus to Waiyaki: A comparative analysis of the parallels between The River Between and the Christian Bible

From Jesus to Waiyaki: A comparative analysis of the parallels between The River Between and the Christian Bible

Mark Olofson

University of Vermont

Link to pdf 

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The narrative in Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo’s The River Between (1965) can be interpreted in a number of different ways, as the reader’s experiences influence these interpretations. My background as an educator, learner, activist, and traveller all contributed to my understanding of the book. However, the largest force in the framing of my interpretation and focus on what I see as three belief systems is due to my time as a scholar of comparative religion. In this brief essay I lay out some of the larger narrative similarities to the story of Jesus Christ as presented in the Bible, as well as some of the specific allusions to events in the Gospels. To conclude, I ponder the possible source and purpose of these similarities, as well as the implications this reading has on my interpretation of the novel.

            The book begins with a prelude that echoes the first chapters of Genesis. The description of the lush serenity of the “valley of life” (p. 1) where the first man and woman, Gikuyu and Mumbi, roamed invokes images of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. In the same way that the biblical pair were given dominion over their paradise (Genesis 1:27-29, New International Version), so too were Gikuyu and Mumbi told, “This land I give to you…It is your to rule and till,” (p. 2). By beginning in this way, Ngũgĩ hints at the biblical themes yet to come.

From early in the story, Waiyaki is given the role of messiah and savior of his people by his father (p. 21). He is the fulfillment of a long-held prophecy. Chege, his father, is a mysterious character who “lived in the son,” (p. 38) and who is absent from physical reality for most of the book. Waiyaki heeds this higher calling, and although he is hesitant in this role of savior, continues on due to his calling and his faith. He becomes “The Teacher,” (p. 81) and is praised by many people as he travels the region, bringing the good news of education and earning devoted followers. Finally a group of conservative elders (the Kiama) who are threatened by his beliefs and growing power bring him up on false and manipulated charges, and the people turn on him in the final moments before judgment is passed against him.

This overarching narrative reflects the path of Jesus in the Gospels. His father is also absent, but is embodied by Christ (Mark 1:11). He is also the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy (Isaiah 53:5, Micah 5:2), and comes from the line of seers (Matthew 1:1-16). Jesus, like Waiyaki, is reluctant to occupy the role of savior (Luke 22:42) but ultimately makes the decision that he cannot abandon his work. He travels the region, and is also referred to as Teacher, or Rabbi (Luke 4:31, Luke 9:2). He gains many devoted followers, and is eventually brought before the chief priests (the Sanhedrin), where he is found guilty of blasphemy (Matthew 26:59-67).

These structural similarities are reinforced by many smaller parallels. The second birth ceremony includes a ceremonial washing in the river from which Waiyaki emerges “clean”(p. 12), which invokes images of Christ’s baptism in the river Jordan (Matther 3:13-15). Waiyaki’s relationship with Kinuthia echoes the relationship between Jesus and Peter; Kinuthia feels that “he could serve under [Waiyaki] forever” (p. 117) just as Peter was the most devoted of Christ’s followers. But as Waiyaki stood trial, Kinuthia hid in the crowd so as to not be identified with him (p. 149); in the same way Peter denied Jesus at trial (Matthew 26:69-75). Kamau, a member of Waiyaki’s inner circle, is not his true friend and eventually works against him, much in the same way Judas betrayed Jesus. At the trial, the crowd has their hearts turned against their beloved teacher by those that speak against him – this plot point happens to both Jesus and Waiyaki.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo also employs several direct allusions to the bible, which help to maintain the connection. Waiyaki is “a stranger, a stranger to his land,” (p. 60) which echoes Exodus 2:22. He is trying to “bring light in the dark,” (p. 72), similar to John 1:5. Waiyaki’s torment is directly compared to Christ’s suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane, and he is referred to again and again as the savior. Even as Muthoni dies, she looks at Waiyaki and says, “I see Jesus,” (p. 53).

            I do not believe that these similarities, especially in light of the direct references, could be accidental, or even simply a curiosity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo attended Kamadura primary school, which was sponsored by the Church of Scotland (Irele & Jeyifo, 2010). Like Waiyaki, he was urged by a parent (mother instead of father) to gain an education, and so it is not hard to believe that he obtained the type understanding of the Bible required to write in this way. But what is gained by framing the narrative in such a way?

            I believe that The River Between was written in such a way for reasons of access, character connections, and familiarity. Although originally written in Gikuyu, the quick translation into English implies that the author thought that it was important for a western audience to read. By using an incredibly familiar structure, the western reader is made to feel comfortable in a world that may seem incredibly foreign. By drawing parallels between the main protagonist and Jesus, the author connects Waiyaki to western sympathies. At the time of writing, Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo had not yet rejected the Christianity of his youth (Irele & Jeyifo, 2010), and so the connection to Jesus would still have been seen in a positive light instead of as a possible liability. Ultimately, the structure helps audiences with a Christian background understand and relate to the material and characters.

            I understand that this analysis may be rejected as stretching by some; others may find it an exercise in stating the obvious. The reason for making the connections plain is only to help background my analysis of the book. I was raised in a very strong Christian household, and although I no longer identify with that tradition, the knowledge with which I was raised remains. Further, having spent a number of semesters in a graduate program in comparative religion, I could not help but to make the connections. The fact that the book led me down thoughts of religion and belief shaped my larger analysis of the competing belief systems in the book, and I hope that I have made clear why this was the case.

References:

Irele, A., & Jeyifo, B. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought. Oxford University Press.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo. (1965). The river between. Oxford [Oxfordshire] ; Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Conflict of dogma: An investigation of the three competing belief systems in The River Between

Conflict of dogma: An investigation of the three competing belief systems in The River Between

Mark Olofson

University of Vermont

Link to pdf

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            The belief systems of communities serve as part of the cultural glue that help to bind them together. In his book The River Between, Ngũgĩ wa Thiongʼo describes the conflict that arises when three different belief systems, which can be framed as both political and religious, try to occupy the same space in the hearts and attitudes of a previously united people (1965). The assimilationist viewpoint is embodied by Joshua through his devout Christianity; the militant-nationalist perspective and the importance of adherence to tribal customs is the perspective of Kabonyi. The third way, a more conservative nationalist path, is led by Waiyaki and his religious devotion dedicated the spread of education. For all three of these factions, their belief systems provide answers to questions and conflicts that that stem from the encroachment of the white man into their valley. The battle escalates due to the faith that each group puts in their beliefs, which makes the conflict not just among people, but also among worldviews. By investigating these different belief systems, we can understand how they provide comfort to their adherents in uncertain times, and due to their very nature hinder the possibility of compromise. Viewed in this way, I believe the story can be understood as a more broad description of reaction to forces that stand to fundamentally alter a way of life, although Ngũgĩ has seated the narrative within the specific context.

Decentralization and Development: An Analysis of the Possibilities and Realities of School Based Management in the Developing World

Decentralization and Development: An Analysis of the Possibilities and Realities of School Based Management in the Developing World

Mark Olofson

University of Vermont

Link to pdf

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For too long, governments and organizations investing in developing-world education have operated under the unquestioned assumption that improved test scores were clear evidence that their investments have paid off. But if…mastery of the basic primary school curriculum is not the best means for improving life chances and alleviating poverty in developing countries, that model is broken. (Epstein & Yuthas, 2012, p. 20)

            Peñoncito, a small town in rural northern Columbia, may not be the obvious place to begin a discussion on community involvement, education, economic development, and environmental sustainability. But the town’s secondary school, Tomás Herrera Cantillo, conducts education in a revolutionary way (Arenas, 2008). Here, student learning is deeply embedded in the work that they do in order to improve their community. The content of the curriculum is deeply connected to the context, and students in different grade levels take on different projects in order to increase the quality of life for themselves and their neighbors. The students not only learn about economically sustainable and environmentally responsible development, they take part in it.

This approach to schooling is not unique to Tomás Herrera Cantillo, but in a time of increasing movements towards standardization and centralized control in the United States (DeBoer, 2012), ministries of education in developing nations may need to look elsewhere for models of local control. Although the conditions necessary for such schools to emerge are difficult to achieve and troublesome to maintain, the outcomes can be truly revolutionary. This paper investigates the decentralization in education systems in developing nations; different models, strengths, weaknesses, and implications for leadership are considered. The social justice implications of decentralization efforts are explored by focusing on the location of decision-making power over curriculum. Although in the realm of education macro-level decisions cannot be directly mapped on to micro-level realities (Mehan, 2012), the system-level policies must be in place in order for these locally-driven innovations to emerge.

The American Dream as Process: Analysis of One Journey

  

The American Dream as Process: Analysis of One Journey

Mark Olofson

University of Vermont 

Link to pdf

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"That dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to his ability or achievement."

- James Truslow Adams (Adams, 1931, p. 404)

The American dream, as presented above, is a broad concept that describes a society where all individuals are able to attain the most they can based upon their capabilities. The dream is that of a true meritocracy, where the initial conditions of a person’s life are not seen as being a help nor a hindrance to future success. In his book Ain’t No Makin’ It, Jay MacLeod (2009) goes in search of this ideal and is left with a different understanding of the state of affairs. Instead of limitless possibility, he finds that institutions have ways of halting mobility based on class (p. 152). Individuals and groups can work with or against the reproduction of their social class, but the mechanisms cannot be ignored. The dialectic process between the structure and individual leads to lesser opportunities and lowered aspirations (p. 255).  But is there another way to frame the American dream that might give us further insight into the definition of a positive outcome for individuals? Instead of focusing on individual states, attitudes, and conditions, this paper will instead consider the process of the American, dreaming.